功臣是用来杀的

2007年7月10日 | 分类: 未分类 | 标签:

汉高帝和明太祖，是国史上出身平民而贵为天子的“绝代双骄”，二人有许多相似的地方，最肖的则是对功臣痛下杀手。汉高帝杀韩信，杀彭越，杀黥布，囚樊哙，走卢绾，将汉初分封的异姓王赶尽杀绝——仅馀偏处一隅的长沙王吴芮能够善终。这是汉代屠戮功臣的大概，说者已多，不赘言；惟要说明一点，那就是被杀被逐诸人都有点冤。
将明与汉试作比较，则有两点不同。一是明初的屠杀规模，远迈汉代；一是朱元璋的杀人手段，远较刘邦为高明。然而，规模大，手段高，只是事情的表象。为什么要杀人？杀人能解决什么问题？是不是非杀人不可？只有回答了这些问题，才能明白屠杀功臣到底具有何种意义，才能从笼罩着杀气的“相斫书”中发见传统政治的真相。不能离事而言理，请先简略介绍有关的史事。
明代以前的君主制，有一个特点，那就是宰相协助皇帝处置国事。各个时期，宰相的名称或不相同，人数或不固定，职权也有变化，然作为官僚集团的领袖，作为对君权的制衡力量，宰相制无疑是传统政治制度的重要组成部分。尤其在开国初期，残破之馀，万事待理，宰相的作用更不可忽视。朱元璋不会不明白这个道理，因此，早在元至正二十四年（1364），他刚称号为“吴王”的时候，便设立了左、右相国。此后，直到明洪武十三年（1380），李善长、徐达、汪广洋和胡惟庸四人先后拜相。看来，朱元璋对宰相制度并无成见，乐以沿用。
但是，惟庸这个人或许天生反骨，在相位上毫不安分。据《明史》本传，惟庸于官吏之“生杀黜陟”，有时“不奏径行”；这是专擅行政、司法之权，也许有点过分，但行政、司法本由宰相统领，偶有过分的地方，究竟不算大错。让元璋恼火的，则是他隐瞒不利于己的报告，不让皇帝看到；至于收受贿赂，提拔私人，与此相较还算小过。尽管如此，仍不足因之致其死命。惟庸终至乎惹上杀身之祸，则因他与仕途受挫的陆仲亨、费聚等人深相结纳，耸使李善长、陈宁、毛骧、李存义、林贤、涂节等文官武将，在国内组成反帝集团，对外则联络蒙古、日本，意图不轨；孰料明太祖“天纵英明”，洞烛其奸，乃先发制人，将“胡党”一网打尽。因牵及此案被杀者共计三万馀人，其中，封侯者二十馀人，五品以上大员不胜其数，为二千年君主制史上罕见的“大清洗”。此即正史所叙“胡惟庸案”。然而，掩卷而思，不能无疑。
刘基（伯温）暴毙于洪武八年，《明史》说是惟庸下毒；而惟庸被诛已在四年之後。此事可疑，但且按下不表，先说更可疑的。惟庸投奔元璋麾下在至元十五年，拜相在洪武三年，擅权始于洪武六年（右相汪广洋被黜，惟庸成为“独相”），至其被诛则已在六年之后。如此，若说元璋不知惟庸是个“奸臣”，难以置信。因为，朱元璋不可能花二十年的时间才认清惟庸的真面目。否则，元璋哪有资格开创一个时代？那么，此处亦可疑。更令人起疑的是，惟庸于洪武十二年被逮入狱，罪名并不是谋反，而是因为刑事案件（怒杀家仆）和行政上的絓误（将罪妇分配给文臣为妾）。蹊跷的是，入狱后，突然有人出来指控他谋反，惟庸遂以此论死。更有意思的是，直到砍了他的头，也还是“反状犹未尽露”。要等到十年之后，因审讯其他罪案，有了意外收获，才得以“大著”他的“逆谋”，才开始执行连带的清洗。试问，如此重大的案件，是不是办得太具戏剧色彩了？莫非现实中的帝王将相，真跟戏台上的生旦净丑一样，唱的是同一首歌？
读史有疑，不能不再三思。凡为开创之主（或曰凡能集合一批人干大事业的人），理应具有一种特别的才能，那就是能够最迅速最透彻发现人性的弱点；还应有一种与之相辅的高明手段，那就是最大限度利用人性的弱点。曹操有两句名言，一句是“举才，勿拘于品行”。说的是，不求你品行不污、天性无缺，不怕你好名、贪利、沉迷于醇酒妇人，只要你有济物应世的本事，我就敢用，我就不愁找不到用你的方法。第二句是，“吾任天下之智、力，以道御之，无所不可”。这个“御之”之“道”，没什么玄虚，不过是用人方法，亦即前述之高明手段。譬如，好名的轻利，重利则不恤于名，敢作风流鬼的也不怕马革裹尸还，那么，分别委诸讽谏、征税和治军之事，或能大收其效。至于好名太过，乃至苛责帝王；搜括务尽，以致戕害民生；攻取战胜后纵兵淫掠，不免有损于军纪。这都不算大问题。因为，“吾任天下之智、力”，意谓解释、裁判与赏罚之权——三者是权力的最高级形式——尽在掌握，只须折冲权衡，损有馀，补不足，就没有办不妥的事，搞不定的人。因此，可以说，观察人性的弱点，可谓“知人”；利用人性的弱点，堪称“善任”。斯二者，元璋无疑兼有之。元璋既能欣赏惟庸的便给任事之才，也必察觉他专宠恃才的弱点。但是，用他干什么，用他到什么时候，这才真正体现元璋的手段。
国家草创，外患略尽，而内忧方起。试想，与元璋一起打天下的人，自觉彼此出身差不多，才能差不多，付出的血汗也差不多，从前呼兄道弟，好不亲热，转眼之间，你是九五之尊，我却要北面称臣，触景生情，百感交并，心内自会生出几句不堪也不敢向外人道的说话。话憋久了，就会病；病重了，就成狂；狂不可遏，则觊觎帝座之心油然生矣。这套逻辑不一定对每个功臣都产生效力，但只要有一个人这样想，元璋就会感觉不踏实。这个人是谁呢？怎么让这个人自己蹦出来呢？此题极难解，或曰无解。因为，若不公然反叛，谁也找不出这个人。难道等这个人主动献身再对付他？此计大谬。因为，一旦这个人明昭大号起而造反，元璋大半已经对付不了他。于是，为了不致出现被动局面，只好“有杀错，冇放过”；于是，元璋不得不假定所有功臣都要篡位；于是，杀尽功臣才是开国之后内政方面的当务之急。但是，也不能对着功臣簿一通乱杀，要讲次序；讲次序，自然先杀名列前茅的；刘基与徐达，一文一武，功勋卓著，名次最前，杀之必不谬。只是，这两人根正苗红，只要其人不首先造反，绝不可能找到理由杀他。怎么办？借刀杀人。
且读《明史》。惟庸尝诱使徐达家人福寿诬告徐达，孰知福寿不吃他这一套，反而举报他。中伤元勋，是多么严重的事情，但书上说徐达知而“不问”，元璋亦未对此表态，遂不了了之。洪武八年，刘基病，惟庸请了医生去看他，刘基遵嘱服药，旋即暴毙。也不见元璋追究，惟庸照样做宰相。这算借刀杀人么？惜不能起元璋于地下问他的口供。然徐、刘经此一遭，一废一死，俱不足威胁帝座，可以说，以惟庸为刀震慑甚而杀害功臣的客观效果达到了。首功既不足为患，接下来要铲除的就是其他功臣。只是打击面太大，单靠惟庸去联系家丁、配制毒药，效率不高，能用的招就只有以点带面，大兴冤狱了。这也是借刀杀人。不过与前有别的是，这一回用完刀，得把它镕了；套用今语，可说，惟庸过了保质期。于是，“胡惟庸案”发生了。当然，功臣如草荠，一拨割不干净。十二年后，元璋抓着凉国公蓝玉的毛病，借题发挥，再办一回大案，牵连入案者，“族诛万五千人”，其中，封侯封伯者十五人，品官亦不胜数。于是，“元功宿将相继尽矣”。
回过头，再问为什么杀人、杀人解决什么问题，吾人或可从容作答。但是，杀功臣是否必然之事，容有疑惑。愚虑有得，试为进一解，其词曰：在君主制下，特别是在开国之君出身平民，全无体制惯性思维亦不借旧体制丝毫助力，一心只要推倒旧君、自我作古、不恤其他的情况下，兔死屠狗是必然之理。此不取决于杀人者之品性，而是环境逼使他非如此不可。这是人的天性。
天命之谓性，无善无恶，不必也不能用后天的道德条例去评价。若仅作为读史者，仅作为戏院的观众，益智开心以外，似毋庸牵动别样的情绪。痛恨他，怜惜他，为之哭笑，为之赞詈，都只应了那句俗谚：唱戏的是疯子，看戏的是傻子。
不疯不傻，老实做人，这才是吾人的王道。

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