通史之断与断代之通

2005年11月1日 | 分类: 未分类 | 标签:


通史之作用,在于总结。旧式通史,所欲总结者不外两端,一曰“理乱兴亡”,一曰“典章制度”。新式通史,所欲总结者,则以社会形态、生活方式、经济发展为要。汉代,甫自封建制一变而为郡县制,在政治、经济、文化层面与前代截然不同,故须要一部通史来作个总结。于是,司马迁撰《史记》,作个总结。宋代,直接隋唐,远绍秦汉,政治、经济虽不脱中央集权制度(亦即郡县制的自然发展)的矩范,但是,立法更完备,运作更缜密,发展更迅速,迥异于中古之中国,以故,钱穆说:“中国的近代史,自宋代即开始了”。于是,司马光撰《资治通鉴》,作个总结。民国肇造,标示二千年帝制一朝崩坍,四万万人民其命维新,且不论新瓶旧酒、乱紫夺朱的遗憾,经验教训仍需总结,于是,数十年间,作者蜂起,通史之作盛于前代,其中佼佼者,则有邓之诚、吕思勉、钱穆、张荫麟、范文澜诸人。兹请介绍吕思勉所撰《白话本国史》。
吕思勉(1884-1957),字诚之,江苏常州人,1922年,撰成《白话本国史》,是中国第一部用白话文写成的通史。吕思勉的一生,可以四个字概括,曰:埋头读书。他以史学名家,读得最多的,当然是史书。他的门人杨宽(战国史名家,新近辞世)尝说他“先后把二十四史反复阅读了三遍”,然据其自述,则不然。实际情况应是,二十四史中,《史记》、《汉书》、《三国志》读过四遍,《后汉书》、《新唐书》、《辽史》、《金史》、《元史》读过三遍,“其余都只两遍而已”(《自述学习历史之经过》)。旧时学者通读过二十四史的,绝不仅见,以此赞扬吕思勉的学问,似不足重。但是,我们先看一段当时“在史学上称王”(傅斯年语)的顾颉刚对通史撰著的评论,再看看吕思勉治史的次序,最后回过头来对他通读二十四史的事迹进行“解读”,兴许能别有解会。
顾颉刚说:“通史的写作,非一个人的精力所能胜任,而中国历史上需待考证的问题又太多,因此最好的办法,是分工合作,先作断代的研究,使其精力集中于某一个时代,作专门而精湛的考证论文,如是方可以产生一部完美的断代史,也更可以产生一部完美的通史”(《当代中国史学》);顾氏此语,很像一种常用的教训:先学走,后学跑。用今日的话说,叫作尊重常识。但是,常识不常,又是一种常识。即以小儿学走为譬;不难发见,小儿之蹒跚,其实是走跑兼具,孰为走,孰为跑,并不能截然划分。何况小儿并不具有清晰分辨走与跑的能力,他的走,他的跑,全凭长者定义。更何况,快走,是走还是跑?慢跑,是跑还是走?即便长者也无法一一指认。小儿成人,回首往迹,到底是先学会走后学会跑,还是会跑以后才能走得更好,一旦较真,恐怕也是扑朔迷离,难求的解。只是因着心底自以为是的仁爱与逻辑(不妨称为惰性),一代代人才会安于先走后跑的常识,居之不疑。顾氏提倡先作好“完美的断代史”,才能作出“完美的通史”,即是自上世纪初“史学革命”以至今日的常识,作者读者安于故步,居之不疑。然如前论,常识不常,不疑处乃有疑焉。
若依“常识”,则吕思勉撰著通史,应当在先秦、秦汉、两晋南北朝、隋唐五代诸种断代史的研究完成后,方能开展。但是,我们看他的著作系年(以出版年代为断),情形却悖于“常识”:《白话本国史》,1923年;《先秦史》,1941年;《秦汉史》,1947年;《两晋南北朝史》,1948年;《隋唐五代史》,1959年。断代史没作出来,却先写出通史,且提早十几年写出。那么,以“常识”判断,他的通史是否跟“完美”不沾边?是又不然。顾颉刚对民国年间的通史著作多不许可,谓“所有的通史,多属千篇一律,彼此抄袭”,对吕撰通史却青眼有加,赞曰:“以丰富的史识与流畅的笔调来写通史,方为通史写作开了一个新的纪元”。前后矛盾如此。然则,到底是顾氏的“常识”毫不可据,还是吕氏天资特出,不必遵循“常识”?这个是非,不可遽定,勉强要找个说法,则须简介吕氏与“古史辨派”(以顾颉刚为代表)、“史料学派”(以傅斯年为代表)在治学上的异同,看能否理出一点头绪。
其所同者,在于三人都强调“用新方法(或曰科学方法)整理国故”,虽为史家,却不以史学自拘,而不惮鉴用社会学、人类学、考古学、经济学乃至文艺学的研究方法和成果。顾颉刚用神话学、民俗学的方法研究上古史,早成佳话;傅斯年倡言“我们不是读书人”,而应“上穷碧落下黄泉,动手动脚找东西”,以为考古学、语言学张目;吕思勉亦尝曰“社会科学是史学的根基”,“主张中学以下的历史,改授社会学,而以历史为其注脚,到大学以上再行讲授历史”;马列主义初入中国,他即“略有接触”,1929年撰成《中国阶级制度小史》,以“阶级”概念阐释古史,新义纷呈,不仅独步当时,即在时移境变的今日再读,亦饶趣味。
其所异者:顾、傅二人主张较为接近,皆崇尚仄而深的专门研究,注重新史料的运用。吕思勉则追求博通周赡的境界,取材多根于正史,并不刻意征引冷僻史料。自其同者视之,三人都投身于上法乾嘉、旁绍欧陆的“新史学”大潮,皆已超越“相斫书”、“帝王家谱”式的旧史学;自其异者视之,则顾、傅稍嫌沉迷于历史研究的过程(史料与考据),不免忽略了史学不仅考据、史学不是史料的“常识”。与二者相较,吕思勉绝非不善考据者,他甚至算得上考据“发烧友”,但是,他却认识到:“今人之屑屑考证,非顾先生(炎武)不能为,乃顾先生所不欲为也。今人自诩搜辑精博,殊不知此等材料,古人既得之而复弃之者多矣”(《自述》)。顾炎武是考据大家,但他的学问决非考据二字可以限量,他所注意者,在古今学术、制度的迁变转移,以及经世济用诸种大计。吕思勉一生服膺顾炎武,且尝认真考虑过加入政界(作官或作政客)的可能性(1911年),此后虽下定决心做学问,仍“好从发展上推求政治利弊之所以然”,故不以“屑屑考证”为苟安,亦不以“搜辑精博”自喜。
吕思勉第一次将二十四史通读一过,在1908年;开始撰写《白话本国史》,在1920年。其间相距十二年。似可设想,此时虽无他人“分工合作”业已成型的“完美的断代史”,吕思勉的胸中却早有了自己的“断代史”,作为撰述通史的基础。就此而言,吕思勉并未违背顾颉刚设定的标准。进而言之,十余年后,吕思勉开始写作断代史,同时,再写了一部《中国通史》(上册,1940年;下册,1944年),似更证明了顾氏“常识”的可信度。然则,新的矛盾又出现了。究竟是写成于“完美的断代史”之前的《白话本国史》堪称“完美”,还是写成于“完美的断代史”之后的《中国通史》更“完美”?请仍以小儿学走的譬喻进行解释。小儿动作,是走是跑,何必分辨得太清楚?走与跑,自其异者视之,是两种动作;自其同者视之,则是一个方向。同理,研究断代史,固可视作为通史作准备;撰述通史,亦能开拓断代研究的思路。一代之制度、学术、地理诸要务,无不有渊源,有流衍。不说明渊源流衍,则断代史难称“完美”,而欲考究源自何时,流向何处,则非先对通史进行研究不可。历代之制度、学术、地理诸要务,兴废因革,时各不同,欲穷通变化,描述迁变,则非先对各代历史进行研究不可。于是,研究断代史,是为了作通史;作通史,也是为了更好的研究断代史。
犹有说者。通史虽名为通,撰述必出于作者之独断;断代虽言其断,考证仍赖乎史识之贯通。即此言之,顾颉刚之论学标准,吕思勉之治学次序,合则兼美,离则双伤。上师说法,前辈躬行,吾侪后学,正宜从此悟入。严耕望称吕思勉为“通贯的断代史家”,旨哉斯言。

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